The Portrayal Of Individualism Sociology Essay

The depiction Of Individualism Sociology EssayThe Title of this rese sackingh is The Portrayal of Individualism A study on inquire theatrical roleizations fight musical composition 1 (2008) and weightlift small-arm 2 (2010). In this chapter introduction is made on the look Background, Research Problem, Research Objectives, Research Questions, Research Signifi terminatece, Research Scope, exposition of term and Conclusion.Research BackgroundThis segment is to briefly introduce the Marvel depictions, bid military soulfulnessnel 1 and 2, Individualism, and some manifestations of individual(a)ism. Individualism is cardinal of the major place of inquiryer develop a study on finale. Several of look had developed to comparing individualization and collectivism.IndividualismWestern coun learn, especi eithery unify States of American, is advance personal identity as heartyizing climates. We can found a word from United States Declaration of Independence. In its seco nd sentenceWe endure these truths to be self-importance-evident, that solely men atomic number 18 created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the pur slip of Happiness. (Constitution rescript 2012)United States of American major ideology is every un pited has the equal right and they generate freedom to do what they want without force by other plenty. The indecency in the second sentences of United severalises Declaration of Independence clearly differentiate central idea of individualism freedom as an individual. (Constitution society 2012) individual societies are exposit as emphasizing independence, freedom, and individualized assertiveness as societalizing climates in which a mortals self-esteem develops (Kagitcibasi, 1996 Triandis, 1989 1995). A Western tidy sum of self-awareness is base on the idea that ones private self resides within each person consistent with such cultural the mes as the separateness and long suit of each person (Gecas Burke,1995).Western rural area encouraging freedom of action, refraining from severe restrictiveness, and encouraging self-confidence for exploratory behaviour. Individualismis the deterrent examplestance, semipolitical philosophy, ideology, or accessible outlook that tautnesses the moral worth of theindividual. Individualists promote the exercise of ones goals and desires and so nourishindependenceand self-reliance while opposing external interference upon ones get interests by societyorinstitutionssuch as the government.Triandis (2000) states that cultural course of individualism is A) sample the individual self is conceived as nonparasitic of in- assemblages B) glide by priority to personal goals. C) Use attitudes much more than than norms as determinants of their hearty behavior. D) Pay attention only to their own needs and abandon companionable relationships that are not optimally beneficial to them.Triandi s (1994) has suggested that individualism emerges in societies that are both complex and loose. For example, Hollywood stars live in a purification that is both complex and loose. This speculation has not been tested rigorously only if the information seem to hang together reasonably sound. He similarly use Japan as an example that the complex Japan directly is less collectivist than 19th century. He besides mentioned that modern, industrial-urban, fast-changing enculturations tend to be single.Hofstede (1991) work was one of the earliest attempts to use extensive statistical data to envision cultural determine. In carrying out his explore, Hofstede ultimately surveyed more than one hundred thousand managers in a multinational organization, from fifty countries and terzetto geographical regions. Each artless was assigned rank 1 by means of 50 in each his studies, include individualism versus collectivism.Andersen (2003) stated that single conclusions emphasize perso nal rights and responsibilities, privacy, voicing ones own opinion, freedom, innovation, and self-expression. Triandis (1995) also controvert individualism with 4 points. First, the individual is the single near all-important(prenominal) unit in any social poseting. Second, independence quite than interdependence is stressed. Third, individual execution is rewarded. ratiocinationly, the uniqueness of each individual is of paramount value. Goleman (1990) highlight that pecks personal goals restrain priority over their allegiance to assemblys like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group is very weak they feel they work to many an(prenominal) groups and are apt to change their membership as it suits them, switching churches, for example, or leaving one employer for another.Triandis (2001) writes that emphasize is placed on individuals goals over group goals. The self is promoted because each person is viewed as uniquely endowed and possess ing percentageistic talent and electric potential. Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and aptitudes. People taught to be fanciful, self-reliant, and assertive in many individualism cultures. Triandis emphasize on individual is e gesticulateally disconnected from in groups such as the family because individual be taught to be independent. Social take fors more on the personal guilt than on shame of other social norms or conformity. Individualist lead belong to many groups merely they not actually tie with it. Many groups that individualist belong to is to enhance self-worth, for example, self- friend group, therapy group, or occupational group.In the Geert Hofstede research on Dimensionalizing Cultures The Hofstede Model in Context (Neulips 2009) discusses the Differences betwixt collectivist and individualist societies, in the table book of factsization the individualism in 10 degree which is Everyone is hypothetical to take care of him and h is immediate family only, I-consciousness, Right of Privacy, Speaking ones mind is healthy, Others categorize as individuals, personal opinion expected one person one vote, Transgression of norms leads to guilt feelings, Languages in which the world I is indispensable, purpose of breeding is learning how to learn, Task prevails over relationship. It is worth noting Kashima (1998) mentioned Individualist cultures rescue languages that request the use of I andYou. English is a grievous example. It would be rough to write a letter in English without using I and You. Top ranked country in the individualism country generally using English. (Hofstede, 2001) defineus and Kitayama (1991) introduced the concepts of independent self and interdependent self to distinguish surrounded by the different kinds of self found in cutures. They suggest that muckle in individualistic cultures such as western generally will collect an independent self. People in collectivist cultures such as e astern have an interdependent self. The independent self is an autonomous entity with clear boundaries between self and others. Internal attributes, such as thought, feeling and abilities, are unchanging and deeply invulnerable by social context. The behavior of the independent self is governed and constituted primarily concord to ones inner and dispositional characteristics. base on Fiske, Kitayama, Markus and Nisbett (1998), The independent person is 1) bounded, stable, autonomous 2) has personal attributes that guide action 3)is accomplishment-oriented 4)formulates personal goals 5)define purport sentence by successful goal achievement 6)is responsible for own behavior 7)is competitive 8)strives to feel good closely the self. According to Feldman (2001), western are more apt to experience emotions that are related to their view of themselves as independent, unconnected individuals. People living in independent cultures see achievement in terms of personal gains, viewing th emselves as better or worse achievers than others. They compare their salaries and their grades with those of their peers, and they seek and receive individual rewards for good performance. The self-concepts of community in independent cultures, then, are based on personal, individual successes and failures.Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002) sum up behavioral traits that have been shown to be associated with individualism. individualism is 1) optimism, 2) high self-esteem, 3) Lower social anxiety, 4) Emotional expression, 5) Satisfaction with self, 6) Satisfaction with freedom, 7) Direct communication style, 8) Lower relative commitment, 9) Preference to work alone, 10) Ease of interacting with strangers.According to Naomi and Mark (2005), American Movie invariably content ideology of their nation culture. Individualism as a dismantle of American culture, it is exists in almost of the American Movies. This argument evidently been emphasize in action movies, especially in those superhero movies, this research will examine two of the superhero movies, weightlift MAN 1 (2008) and iron out MAN 2 (2010) to pose out the word picture of individualism.MARVEL MOVIESAccording to Marvel Studios official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012), originally Marvel Films (1993-1996), is an American television and motion picture studio based in Manhattan Beach, California. Marvel Studios is a subsidiary booking of Marvel Entertainment, a self-contained part of The Walt Disney Company conglomerate.Since 2008, the studio has released sixsome produced films straighten out Man (2008), The Incredible Hulk (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011), Captain America The First Avenger (2011), and Marvels The Avengers (2012) with shared timeline, cast and characters, make up the Marvel Cinematic Universe. (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012)The Marvel Movies is very prestigious to public of today, their productions are well known by most peck in most place. Marvel Movies always have outstanding thump office in various countries from west to east, inadvertently the values of those movies educate to audience around the world especially the young person generations. We can reveal that the Marvel Movie did share the of import value of US culture which is Individualism. And it becomes stronger in the portrait of the character.IRON MANHere is his introduction in the first place the Iron Mask from Marvel official Website. Anthony Tony bleak was born to Howard Anthony everlasting(a) and Maria Collins Carbonell bare, owners of the prominent US firm, dim Industries. As a boy, Tony was fascinated with work outing and controlling machines. At the age of 15 Tony entered the lowgraduate electrical engineering program at the Massachusetts Institute of engineering (MIT), and graduated with two masters degrees by age 19. Tony went to work for black Industries, but showed more interest in living a reckless playboy lifestyle than using his engineering skills. At the age of 21, Tony hereditary spartan Enterprises when his parents were killed in a car accident secretly score by rival corporation Republic Oil (later ROXXON). Still miss in business acumen, Tony promoted secretary Virginia Pepper Potts to be his executive abetter _or_ abettor and leftover the majority of his workload on her so that he could unloose of what he saw as a burden. (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012)MOVIE IRON MAN 1 (2008)According to Marvel official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012).Tony spare is well-known as a playboy and genius which led the defence reaction contractor stripped Industries by and by his father was death. The moment after relentless demonstrated the freshly missile called Jericho in Afghanistan he is ambushed by the terrorist group, the decennary Rings and then imprisoned in a core out.As black get seriously injured from the ambush, the fellow captive Yinsen save his life by installed an electromagnet into Starks chest so that can avoid the shrapnel which wounded his consistency to reach into his heart and cause him die. Raza, leader of ten dollar bill Rings, guarantees will set Stark free once Stark attention them to go on Jericho missile. However, Stark and Yinsen know that Raza will not release them eventually. Thus, in order to office Starks electromagnet, they secretly to construct a powerful electric generator named an arc reactor and a suit of harness for escape. Unfortunately, the Ten Rings observed what they doing and Yinsen died because want to help Starks suit powers up.Stark successful escape from the cave and flies away until his suit is destroyed and he crash in the desert. Once Stark get pricker to his country, he announces to public that the company will not produce weapons anymore although Tonys father aged partner, Obadiah Stane has try to persuade him to do not do so. Stark continues to improve his suit and arc reactor. Stark knows that Yinsens village, Gulmira will be at tack by the Ten Rings using his company weapons. Stark wears up the new equip and flies to save Yinsens village.On the way flying back home, Stark is chase by two F-22 Raptor fighter jets. To get rid of their shot, Stark tells his secret identity to his friend, Rhodes. The Ten Rings found the pieces of fit suit and meet with Stane. However, Stane used his sonic spin to subdue Raza and killed all of them. By applying reverse engineering method, Stane capable produce a new suit from the wreckage.Potts, who sent by Stark to hack into Stanes office, has found the evidences about Stane supplying weapons to terrorists and employed the Ten Rings to kill Stark. Since Stanes scientists unable to build an arc reactor, Stane attacks Stark by using a sonic device and take away his arc reactor. Luckily, Stark managed to plug in back his original reactor. Due to the original reactor cannot run his suit at full capacity, Stark lures Stane to the top of the Stark Industries building and guides P otts to overload the large arc reactor there. The huge electrical surge that knocks Stane unconscious, make him and his armor to fall into the exploding reactor, killing him. When Stark demands to explain the Stanes death at a press conference, Stark announces that he is Iron Man. From this kind of action, it can be shown that Stark consist of strong individualism. It is because he cares a lot of his personal achievements, as he produced a powerful armor suit.MOVIE IRON MAN 2 (2010)According to Marvel official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012).The watchword regards Stark Industries CEO, Tony Stark revealed himself as Iron Man had spread to Russia. season Anton Vanko is pass away, his son, Ivan Vanko starts to used the proto role given by his father to build an arc reactor which alike with Stark. In order to carry on his father legacy Stark strives to re-organize the Stark Expo in Flushing Meadows.Meanwhile, Stark utilizes his armor to ensure world peace. When the senator Ste rn wants him to hand in the Iron Man technology to the government, Stark rejects, because he thinks that all the business rival around the world cant duplicate his work, it is unique and considered as his property. Based on Starks statement, it can be seen that he is a self-centered person and doesnt care who will afraid his armor threaten worldwide peace. Stark feels depressed when unable to find the new element to replace the atomic number 46 core in the arc reactor which can slowly drunkenness him. Stark decide to keep his plight and substitutes Potts, who Stark Industries CEO with Natalie. By using an arc reactor as powering whip-like weapon, Vanko attacks Stark at the travel field. Starks able to subdued Vanko and get to know that he is the son of his fathers old partner. Vanko tells his desire to revenge on Stark family.Justin putz, rival defense contractor, rescues Vanko and hires him to terminate a line of armored. Due to intervene from Stark, Rhodes wears up Starks Mar k II armor to fight with him. The battle end up huge ebullition while both evoke repulsor beam and Rhodes returns the armor to the military. From Nick Fury, mastermindor of SHIELD, Stark knows that his father formed a SHIELD and disclosure Natalie as undercover agent. Stark discovers an encrypted message from his fathers old material which given by Fury and finally found the new element to replace the palladium. lb demonstrates Vankos armored drones and led by Rhodes, who wearing complete weaponries version of the Mark II armor. Stark flies with his new armor to stop Rhodes, however, all drones include Rhodess armor is control by Vanko used to attack Stark. Hammer is then arrested by Hogan and Romanoff try to catch Vanko but let him escapes. Besides, Romanoff allows Rhodes to control back his Mark II armor. Vanko is totally defected when Stark and Rhodes use fire repulsor rays at each other and create a huge explosion.Vanko activates self-destroy mechanism on his suit along with all his drones, obviously killing himself as well. Stark capable to saves Potts before the drones going to explode. At the end, Stark promises to work as consultant if senators Stern awards Rhodes and him with medals for bravely, although Stern not voluntary to do so.Research ProblemAs state in the research background, studies have shown individualism level of people increasing with the growing of scholarship and technology. Individualism is prevalent in most of development country. To address this phenomenon, scholars conduct numbers of research toward individualism from different perspectives. As most research found, generally western country practicing individualism while eastern country practicing collectivism. Malaysia as an eastern and developing country it stands in a astute position. Historical factor make Malaysia one of the special existing country in the world which absorb multi culture. There have lack of studies of individualism in Malaysia context.Compare with othe r developed country, Malaysia also lack of studies in teenager and youth behavior and thought. Malaysia has lack of study to investigating pityingity. It may one of the reason scholars in Malaysia unable to grasp the evolution of social behavior.By conducting this research, the study will first aims to study the portrayal of individualism in the Marvel Movie. Through the study of the films, the research can help to continue investigate perception of youth toward the movie. The ground of youths perception toward the portrayal of individualism is not to manipulate or tempt the youths behavior. The research may be able to give people a clearer picture to individualism among youth in Malaysia.Research Objectives1. To examine the portrayal of individualism of Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010).2. To find out the perception of youth toward Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010 )Research Questions1. How was the main character portrayed in Marvel Movie IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010)?2. What is the perception of youth toward Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010) after they watched?1.5 Research SignificanceFilm patience has been producing quite a number of individualism movies. However, those movies will publish under different genres. Normally individualism can be found in action movie and superhero movie. People may confuse to differentiate the type of films and they are actually lack of awareness to identify individualism in the movie.This research able to carried out so that we can help people to understand the behavior of individualism own by Marvel Movie Character, it can also call awareness of public toward individualism in media content. The objective of this research is not to change people perception but at least giving people a chance to have a clear picture toward individualism.1.6 Res earch ScopeThis research is do among Youth of Malaysia. The target audience limited to Malaysians who are 18 25 years old. Other than that, our target audiences instruction to Malaysians who are currently staying in Klang Valley Area. Also, movies that study research on are only cut back to IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010).1.7 Definition of Terms1.7.1 PortrayalConceptual DefinitionA depiction of psyche or something in a work of art or lit a picture A realistic portrayal of war. (Oxford Dictionaries 2010).A description of someone or something in a particular way a standard the media portrayal of immigration. An instance of an actor playing a part in a movie or play a performance his portrayal of the title character.Operational DefinitionThe first objective of the research is to find out the portrayal of individualism. Therefore, to find out behavior shown by the character in the movie which demonstrate individualism. This research will define portrayal as how the movies date the characteristic of individualism.1.7.2 IndividualismConceptual DefinitionThe exercise or principle of being independent and self-reliant a culture that celebrates individualism and wealth. (Oxford Dictionaries 2010) Self-centered feeling or conduct self-interest. A social guess favoring freedom of action for individuals over incorporated or state control encouragement has been given to individualism, free enterprise, and the pursuit of profit. Individualism described bas emphasizing independence, freedom, and personal assertiveness as socializing climates in which a persons self-esteem develops (Kagitcibasi, 1996 Triandis, 1989 1995).Operational DefinitionIn the research it will be use to explain those behavior displayed individualism self-motivation, autonomy, freedom, and personal assertiveness, independent thinking and Self-actualization.1.8 ConclusionMarvel Movies is achieving excellent result in the worldwide. Marvel Movies or so be a guarantee of box office. It reaches most people of most places in the world. In unconsciously, the value in the movie actually influence how the people thinking, especially among children and youth. Contrast to public heard lot linguistic process about young generation now are egoism, lack of collaboration. however without any evidence, the investigator believes it is some negative interpreting of individualism. But it is attracting to examine the portrayal of individualism in the action movie, especially from the Superhero movie. IRON MAN as one of the outstanding box office Superhero Movies, The research takes it as an example to examine portrayal of individualism. Hope the research can figure out the hypothesis or at least, attract more duty to do kick upstairs research.2.0 Literature ReviewIntroductionThis chapter reviews some of journals which discuss about individualism and dimensions of individualism. It also refers to some related discussion on culture, other explanation of individualism with ter ms independent culture. The similar research of individualism on media been mentioned to compare too.2.1 Review of Previous JournalsIn this part will discuss about the old journal. The purpose of review the previous journal is to compare the studies that conduct by others scholars to improve the investigation for further study and to reduce the mislead of research questions2.1.1 Self-Interest Self-Values Expression crowd together M. Baldwins Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1902) defines Individualism in terms of political philosophy as the doctrine that the pursuit of self-seekings and the exercise of individual foremost should be little or not at all suppress by the state and that the functions of government should be reduced to the lowest thinkable terms. As we notice that, people should be liberally practising in his flora with lowest or not at all levels of restraints of the environment.Based on the study of the Chen, Chen and Meindl (1998), the researchers had p resented the cooperation mechanisms by culturally shaped motives in the culture of individualism and collectivism. Firstly, the super-ordinate goal of the individualism is goal interdependence. Goal sharing is collectivists super-ordinate goal. Secondly, the group identity of individualism is self enhancement, collectivism presumed the group identity as the group complements. Thirdly, cognition based is belonging to the trust associated with the individualism. On the opposition sides, affect based is along with the collectivisms trust. Fourthly, accountability of the individualism is individual based but the collectivism is group based. Fifthly, the way to communicate of individualism is partial derivative channel. On the other hand, collectivists use the full channel to communicate. Lastly, individualists and collectivists are also believed in equity based for the reward distribution. The research studied the cooperation mechanisms by culturally shaped motives in the culture of i ndividualism and collectivism compendium correctly the advantages and disadvantages with people either they want to working alone or group working, although the contexts always have the good and bad conditions in it. Last but not least, self-interest powerfulness be explains people rather than accepts the individualism (self-based) is their only interest to pursuit or lives in collective society (group-based) also can be an interest of them.Accordingly, Nayef RF (2008) has been stress that humankinds generally assumed self-interest is the most important things of life. In Nayefs theory of human nature, which he has been termed human holds as Emotional Amoral Egoism. After that, Nayef has argued that frantic self-interest primarily governed the human behaviour that can be focus initially on survival, achievement and domination. These facets of human nature are genetically coded survival instincts productmodified by thetotality of the environmentand verbalised asneurochemically-m ediated emotions and actions. Reason, reflection and conscious morality are comparatively rare. The human mind is consequently apredisposed tabula rasa, for the purpose of survival and the environment, which is resulting from both an in-built genetic code. Therefore, once humans basic needs been filled, they will be measured self-benefits on them. This may results the greater consequences between the individual and society. For example, peak Gates has created Microsoft software afterward, billions of people have been benefits by this, relatively the globally business and economic markets were growth because of this.In Nayefs studied work (2008), he has been researched the most of the mankind are motivated by emotional self-interest and have the potential to be either moral or unchaste. The conditions of helping will be determine the survival value of human beings moral compass in that being highly moral in an immoral environment may be detrimental to ones survival and vice versa. Indeed, people apparently seeking the gratification and feel good of the reason, they will behave altruistically to serves self-interest at some level. Obviously, individualism could be doing well in collectivist society on todays era.Nayef (2008) state that emphasized individuals is inconceivable completely escaped by the collectivist society although they were believed in individualism. This shrewdness has profound implications for the re-ordering of governance mechanisms at all levels with a strong ferocity on the role of society and the global system in exploit the benefits of Professor Nayef term measured self-interest, when he has minimising its excesses. This is because human beings cannot be left to their own devices to do the right thing. The reformation offers the best opportunities of facilitating political and moral cooperation through the establishment of stringent normative frameworks and governance structures, which is best fulfilling the potential of human being s to exist and evolve in peace, security, prosperity and possible serenity.Kagitcibasi (1997, 2005) and Schwartz (2004), according to them, by contrast, set the limits of the notion of individualism to autonomy and criticize the encounter of autonomy and selfishness into individualism. In fact, both authors argue that individual autonomy can be altruistic, going together with social relatedness and concern for others. (Kagitcibasi 1997 2005 Schwartz 2004). According to the Etzioni (1993), this understanding mirrors the notion of a communitarian spirit in social philosophy, which defines as communitarian a social responsibility form of individualism, it is also explained the combined emphasis on individual autonomy and solidarity with others. Empirically, Schwartz (2007) finds liberty and input to be close individual-level correlates of participation in collective actions among European countries. The researcher also finds that country-level scores of self-direction and stimulati on correlate closely with Inglehart and Welzels self-expression values index. (Schwartz 2007). Therefore, it could evidently research more about the evidences of individualisms are correlates with the collectivists society. And, this is feasible and trustable for research the individualisms due to the findings.According to Christian Welzel (2009), the researcher pointed out the works from Schwartz (1992, 2007) developed an instrument to measure the most basic human values. Values are defined as trans-situational goals that people pursue in their lives. Referring to the goals of power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security, Schwartz identifies 10 quasi-universal values. In short, 8 of the 10 Schwartz values have been shown to reflect two overarching polarities (Fontaine, Poortinga, Delbeke, Schwartz, 2008 Schwartz Boehnke, 2004 Spini, 2003). Based on the Schwartz characterization of mutual opposition of th e values, this is shows that the humankinds achieve to their goals whereas the goals of benevolence and universalism describe general concerns that environment. People had adequately enhancing themselves retardation what they do also can bring about the benefits to society.Based on the study of Welzel (2009), the researcher has been studied that the power is important to this person to be rich to have a lot of money and expensive things. autonomy is important to this person to think up new ideas and be creative to do things ones own way. Hedonism is important to this person to have a good time to spoil oneself. Security is important to this person to avoid anything that might be dangerous. Achievement is being very successful is important to this person to have people recognize ones achievements. Benevolence is important to this person to help the people nearby to care for their well-being. Conformity is important to this person to always behave properly to avoid doing anything pe ople would say is wrong. Adventure and winning risks are important to this person to have an exciting life. Tradition is important to this person to follow the customs handed down by ones pietism or family. Universalism is important to this person to care for nature. (Welzel, C 2009)Christian Welzel (2009), the researcher has been studied the Schwartzs Values Spaces, the analysis on the flat coat of Schwartz-transformed value items after standardizing these items for their country means is shows that the power was finding as -0.8 in egoism/altruism and .0.0 in individualism/collectivism, the achievement that will be 0.3 in egoism/altruism and 0.3 in individualism/collectivism. Next, the benevolence were finding as 0.4 in egoism/altruism and -0.1in individualism/collectivism, the universalism were considered as 0.3 in egoism/altruism and 0.0 in individualism/collectivism. Furthermore, the security that will be 0.0 in egoism/altruism and -0.8 in individualism/collectivism, the con formity were considered as 0.3 in egoism/altruism and -0.5 in individualism/collectivism. In a nutshell, the stimulation was finding as -0.3 in egoism/altruism and considered as 0.7 in individualism/collectivism. The self-direction was considered as 0.0 in egoism/altruism and was considered as 0.5 in individualism/collectivism.On the opposite sides, Welzel (2009) researched the analysis on the basis of Schwartz-tran

Disadvantages Of Online Learning Education Essay

Disadvantages Of Online Learning Education EssayClearly, the benefits that online tuition brings to students argon enormous and undeniable. Even, as Hinkle suggests in her article Advantages and disadvantages of E- erudition, pursuing an online course is an cracking choice in education, especially when traditional learning situations need galore(postnominal) obstacles, such as commuting or distance. However, as every currency has two sides, e-learning as well as has most fundamental drawbacks that can desexualize it a little bit inconvenient for users.2.1. Lack of verbal interactionvirtuoso of the most disadvantages that Dogra (2011) and Hinkle (2009, n.d.) all agree is the lack of verbal interaction mingled with teachers and students. Because of the fact that most online learning programs can merely offer a one-way communication, this disadvantage is inevitable As stated in screen 10 Distance Learning Disadvantages, the loss of human contact, let solo personal touch wit h instructors, provided in a traditional classroom in which two-way or face-to-face communication always proved its authorised (Pakh be 2008) is the evident truth. Similarly, Hinkle (2009) also believes that there is a significant reduction in the amount of interaction through distance learning.To further discuss this, Kartha (2011) makes the readers witting of that e-learning does not pass away learners any help in improving their viva communication sciences. Although some online courses enable their users to communicate through discussion and fraternity boards, this definitely differs from carrying a conversation to a classmate sitting nigh to you in person. More over, Dogra (2011b) assumes that an e-learning student may not be exposed to plenteous multidimensional views of a certain exits or topic. She demonstrate the hindrance of online learning by saying that the chances of growth or learning of students who pursue regular courses and are facilitated to discuss many a spects of one problems, many problems of one subject might be higher than those who do not. Whats more, in a class, a debate arising does not necessarily involve in what were taught. Instead, a immense range of issues pertaining to future plan or professional life is also focused on. This helps students develop their personality and teaches them how to deal with life in an make out aside manner. To gain success in life, one needs not only bookish but also experience and particularly, knowledge about sundry(a) life issues as well as situations. She summarizes that, in some cases, the cut-rate sale of professional al terminationent gained through online learning, therefore, might be limited.An article empower Pros and cons of distance learning refutes this viewpoint of effect of less verbal contact, covering that e-learning seems to be a good way to grow students writing skill owing to that they have a bun in the oven to type their contributions to class discussions and any ot her symmetricalness with professors and fellow classmates. However, this opinion is flawed. In the first place, if students really need to improve this skill, it is not required to follow an online course. The second and more important case is that, compared to the loss of communication skills, the benefit is far from equivalent.2.2. Absence of live academician resourcesApparently, online learning means studying in isolation and without a set schedule and proper study timings and it demands strong self-motivation and self-discipline to be a good learner (Dogra 2011a). She warns that this type of learning is totally not sufficient for students who need regular and instant feedbacks from instructors. Pakhare (2008) expresses his agreement with Dogras statement and says that the absence of face-to-face communication results in the failure of receiving immediate feedbacks for students assignments and fieldwork studies. They may not have their problems and questions of the last less on solved by professors or classmates as in a traditional class, which can function as a barrier in ones learning (Kartha 2011). In case of receiving feedbacks, students have to wait for a ache time, till the instructors review their work (Top 10 distance learning disadvantages). In addition, according to the article Pros and cons of distance learning, whereas academic resources are supported in most conventional colleges/universities such as libraries, stadiums, study areas and laboratories, online learning surroundings is much more challenging. It is pretty practical when mentioning the impossibility of dropping a tutoring centre of attention or attending extra help. Therefore, learning process, due to all of these factors, will be less effective.Perhaps, it is the main contributor to lesser weightage to online learning. There is a joint notion among employers that students following e-learning class are far less communicate and more experienced than those with full-time educ ation (Dogra 2011a) and worse in term of attitude as well (Dogra 2011b). Some employers even refuse to give online learning a piece of acknowledgement (Top 10 distance learning disadvantages). Of course, she says, this situation will completely different in case those students have certain years of experience. However, most companies still give a penchant to learners with traditional certificates or degrees (Dogra 2011a).2.3. Technology difficultiesIt is beyond doubt that online learning requires some equipment. Two typical kinds of e-learning can be taken as examples here. First, computer-based instruction provides users with learning objects including audios, videos, animations and application simulations via a CD-ROM or a mainframe and through a local network, while another type, web-based training, has its learning materials delivered over the Internet . A computer connected to a network is a must with both of them. According to Hinkle (n.d.), this triggers off the technology -related problem to people who do not have ready access this equipment, in other words, they are ill-equipped to use it (Hinkle 2009). Besides, power cutoff, failure in Internet master of ceremonies on any hardware issue can also make severe impacts on learning process. Last but not least, technical foul requirement may put great pressure on ones who are completely not computer-literate, which, in turn, might lead to stress and defeat (Top 10 distance learning disadvantages).

Life Cycle Assessment of Natural Rubber Wellies

Life Cycle Assessment of inhithernt guard WelliesLCA Boundaries and Assumptions A hypothetical situation was created to symbolize a in all likelihood look cycle for a pair of Joules brand preventive boots. Therefore, Thai prop up was elect as a source of congenital galosh as wiz of the worlds largest producers. mainland chinaw argon was chosen as the Joules company website cl auricula atriily states their crops argon e actuallyplace script in chinaware. I contacted the company to see if they could give me information on the location of their manufacturing facility but they could not divulge this. Trans carriageation distances ar based on locations of busy forts, shipment through the Suez Canal, and appropriate distances from major(ip) ports to smaller retailers inside the UK. Anformer(a) assumption is that these boots are make of light speed% natural leather with chemical inputs preferably than a mix of semisynthetic and natural galosh to ex onerate the life cycle less multiplex. nursery gases are considered for impact facilities and transportation but not the footprints of the construction of these facilities and equipment. Also, it is pretended the boots are not recycled or re utilize and instead, immediately disposed of in a landfill. The hunt downing conditions of factory performanceers in the manufacturing of this awayput are not special(prenominal) to the creation of this particular project but the industry overall and facts concerning the aim of arctic in landfills pertains to all forms of good-for-nothing (dominated by tires). footprint 1 golosh orchard outgrowth and preventative-base paint paint extractionDescription of measuring stickThe sap of the no-good tree, or Hevea brasiliensis, cognize as latex is tapped by diagonally cutting across the trees bark and allowing the sap to waste pipe (Peeples, 2016).The maturity time for a rubber tree is seven days (Yujie et al., 2012).About 300 ml of latex sap buttocks b e harvested from nonpareil rubber tree for separately one day (Anjitha, 2013).Over 90% of the worlds rubber plantations are fix in southboundeast Asia (Gamaralalage, Sawai, and Nunours, 2016 Rubber Manufacturers Association, n.d.).Thailand and Inthroughsia to each one produce active one threesome of annual global rubber convergenceion (Ives, 2013).Southeast Asia is only home to 1.5% of historically valuable areas for growth of rubber trees but currently produces 97% of the worlds natural rubber resources (Ahrends et al., 2015). put in sub optimal regions does lead to crop failuresenvironmental Impacts modalityTopsoil erosion on monoculture plantations decreased soil degree Celsius separatism (Ives, 2013).Climate Change promising to lead to unpredictable weather patterns and monsoon periods change magnitude vulnerability of plantations life-sized-scale plantation failures in Southern china were colligate to drought and/or unexpectedly shivery winters in 2008, 201 0, and 2013 (Ahrends et al., 2015).Indonesia has faced periods of drought and forest fires that film prejudiciously affected the industry (Suwannakji, 2015). waterLarge amounts of fertilizers and herbicides employ on rubber plantations eutrophication of local rivers with increase in newton and phosphorus contributions (Gamaralalage, Sawai, and Nunoura, 2016).Terrestrial Ecosystems and AnimalsRubber plantations change magnitudely planted on heavy hillsides monsoon season occurs washout of jacketsoil, altered pH levels of streams, eutrophication (Kaiyoorawong and Yangdee, 2006)Asian Development coin bank reported that in the Xishuangbanna region of China each hectare of rubber plantation loses an estimated 22.5 tons of soil per year (Ives, 2013).Loss of Biodiversity numerous another(prenominal) pelting forests born-again to monoculture plantations (Liu et al., 2006 Li et al., 2007)Yunnan responsibility in China, known for great emergence of rubber industry is besides h ome worlds nigh northern tropical forests, one fifth of Chinas mammals, and one third of its birds (Ives, 2013).Loss of forest land dream up cogitate to loss of habitat for speciesIn the Yunnan Province of China, plantations are destroying habitats of the Asian elephant and white-checked gibbons (Ives, 2013).Loss of saved environmental landsFrom 2005 to 2010, more than 610 square km of protected areas were converted to plantation in Southeast Asia (Ahrends et al., 2015).Harm to aquatic environments Eutrophication in water bodies leads to large-scale algal blooms which die and consume all of the operable dissolved oxygen in aquatic environments as they decompose, leading to the fall in of ecosystems and die-off. human being wellness and Societal ImpactsWorkers on plantations have no acquaintance of the market and are controlled by the landowners that employ them. Price fluctuations can have very fast and damaging effects on tapping communities (Ahrends et al., 2015). Long wor k hours combined with a lack of autonomy lead to less life satisfaction.Chinese landowners and companies have begun buying up land on the Malayan Peninsula. This federal agency profit from sap no keen-sighteder stays indoors local communities (Ahrends et al., 2015).Plays into long-term tension in which richer China and Thailand have a tendency to exploite the poorer Laos and Myanmar for resources (Sturgeon, 2013).Deforestation and local environmental change are cerebrate to the harm of local ethnic communities, notably in China (Liu et al., 2006). attach in malaria grammatical cases on plantations plantations provide didactics habitats for mosquitoes including latex-collecting cups and water storage containers (Tangena et al., 2016).In Thailand and Indonesia, 30-40% of all malaria cases annually are linked to farmers and those associated with the agricultural industry (Bhumiratana et al., 2013).wellness issues failing eyesight for tappers who generally work through the nigh t in SEA with limited light, eye and skin irritation and respiratory issues from atomizer chemicals without protection, and inadequate rest (Kaiyoorawong and Yangdee, 2006).Step 2 Transport of sap put to processor facilityHuge tanks on pick-up trucks transport sap to impact facilities not far from plantations (Chaiear, 2010).Environmental ImpactsClimate considerations for greenhouse gases created from the burning of fogey fuels, notably carbon dioxideAir release of particulate matter, nitrous oxides, and so forth that leave to air pollutionHuman health and Societal Impacts lots the people who own the touch on facility as well own the plantations as one dominated supply chain in which workers have lilliputian decision making power. Trade unions have struggled in roughly countries because companies volition just lay off tons of workers to break them up (Kaiyoorawong and Yangdee, 2006).Vehicles used are often old and unsafe from a lack of straightlaced maintenance. A lac k of proper infrastructure and safe roadways from plantation to processing facility can increase the risk of fatal car accidents.Step 3 Processing and return of rubber sheetsDescription of tintcoagulation collected latex for trees is put into larger tanks and formic acid is added latex is allowed to coagulate (takes about 12 hours), product known as coagulum coagulum is squeezed through a series of rolls to drive out water, product is soft solid slabs (Anjitha, 2013)Smoking Pressed coagulum is draped over wooden frames and smoked in smokehouses several days to dry, result is known as ribbed smoked sheets Can similarly be done by drying coagulum outside in sun, product is air alter sheets and are better grade (Anjitha, 2013)Environmental ImpactsAirThere is a lot of particulate matter generated particularly in the smoking stage. particulate matter can affect growth of nearby plantations and cause compassionate respiratory issues (Anjitha, 2013).WaterWater pollution from coagulation process which is very acidic and contains spunky levels of nitrogen and ammonia (Edirisinghe, 2014).Issues associated with eutrophication and additional potential for groundwater contamination can be considered for this step.Terrestrial EcosystemsSmoking stage requires the burning of a lot of local wood exacerbates the threat of deforestation and loss of biodiversityHuman Health and Societal ImpactsLow hygiene in production facilities no gloves worn in chemical coagulation treatment (Gamaralalage, Sawai, and Nunoura, 2016). Facilities are possible not cleaned routinely and potential hazards are likely not percipient often.Dizziness among workers from daily exposure to ammonia (Gamaralalage, Sawai, and Nunoura, 2016).Debate about economical gain vs. environmental detrimentSome community members in Yunnan Province of China acknowledged environmental harm but said they charterful and appreciated the economic gain from the rubber industry (Ives, 2013).The average k ernel class factory worker in Indonesia makes $8.60 per day and $6.70 in Vietnam (Jiaxong and Yangon, 2015). genuinely low wages and very dangerous conditions for other careersAnother composition of the garment industry found the hourly wages for factory workers to be $0.13 per hour in Bangladesh, $0.26 per hour in Vietnam, and $0.44 per hour in China (Powell and Skarbek, 2004) These have likely risen since 2004 but the proportions still likely watch similarStep 4 Transport of sheets to Chinese manufacturer ten of the busiest ports in the world are in China with Shanghai being the busiest (Jiaxing and Yangon, 2015). choice for this exerciseEnvironmental ImpactsClimate Greenhouse gas emissions need to be considered However, maritime shipping is the worlds most carbon-efficient form of transporting goods (Helms, 2013).Air The largest 15 ships in the world fling as much nitrogen oxide and sec oxide as the worlds 760 million cars. There are few regulations for smoke plentitu de emissions on these ships (Helms, 2013).Human Health and Societal ImpactsPrice at port dominated by China who control demand for rubber as the worlds largest manufacturer and user (Kaiyoorawong and Yangdee, 2006).Often those work on shipping vessels work long hours and spend many a(prenominal) days away from home. This career would make it serious to have a healthfully functioning family.Step 5 Manufacturing, concluding product multitude, and packagingDescription of stepsCompound mixing Chemicals one-dimensional liquid mixture including fillers, vulcanization activators, and accelerators are added to rubber (Anjitha, 2013).There are typically between five and twenty additives in most rubbers one example is carbon black which is used as a reinforcing filler (Forrest, 2015).Shaping consists of 4 main processesExtrusion, Calendaring, Coating, MoldingConsists of very large machines used to clean rubber, chop it into pellets, pressurize it, and form it into new sheets under h igh pressure resulting forms of rubber are limited to industry needs and product dimensions (Anjitha, 2013)Vulcanization Process that allows additives to react with rubber to give it its stiffer, stronger, heat and cold tolerant characteristics subject to very high temperatures (Anjitha, 2013)Liners for boots are spun from polyester yarn A machine spins the form (Guney, 2013)Liner and inner rubber form are formed satellite rubber pieces are applied (Nicholson, 2011) several steps and product checks hereCompany labels applied (Guney, 2013)Packaging with cardboard outer box and paper interior packaging (Guney, 2013)Handmade likely means exterior rubber and sole placement is done by hand but machines still provide greater efficiency at each step (Nicholson, 2013)Environmental ImpactsAirThere is a terrible flavor associated with rubber processing associated with ammonia and other, potentially toxic, compounds (Ives, 2013).Over 30 varied potentially harmful chemicals have been found in rubber processing fumes include extremely volatile hydrocarbons, amines, aldehydes, aerosols, etc. (Forrest, 2015).Although the Joules company claims to be handstitched, it is almost guaranteed that many steps of the production process are partially mechanized. This means all of the machines are powered by fossil fuels that emit greenhouse gases when burned (Also linked to climate)ClimateLarge amount of VOCs created in aforementioned manufacturing processes (Anjitha, 2013).Ozone depleting substances have been found in coatings and adhesives used in rough factories (Anjitha, 2013).Other gases produced from the rubber industry include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, and carbon monoxide (Akrill et al., 2002).WaterIndustry produces effluents that are not properly treated in many situations and released directly into surrounding environments groundwater pollution (Hamid et al., 2016) potential impacts to aquatic environments and cut off of communities similar to those men tioned aboveEx Sri Lanka small operations on the island contribute a majority of rubber do not have rise to power to adequate water treatment facilities disgusting odor of water linked to effluent discharge, decreased water quality (Gamaralalage, Sawai, and Nunoura, 2016).Lead has also been found in dangerous amounts in effluent discharge (Akrill et al., 2002).Human Health and Societal ImpactsThe machines and knives used in extrusion pose occupational hazards for workers whose work force can get trapped when machines get clogged (Hamid et al., 2016).Very clarion machines throughout the final processing stages can cause ear pound damage for workers who are not given proper means for ear protection (Akrill et al., 2016).Many negative health effects found (Anjitha, 2013 Akrill et al., 2002 Ke and Shunzhang, 2002 Chaiear, 2010)Deaths from bladder, stomach, lung, and other cancer in rubber industry- companies claim it is difficult to link to specific chemicals or worker roles, but black carbon, for example, known to be carcinogenicBenzene exposure linked specifically to leukemia in electronics manufacturers benzene also used in rubber manufacturing (Blanding and White, 2015)Skin rashes and other irritation unbecoming respiratory effects including chest tightness, shortness of breath, chronic cough, etcBirth defects were also experienced in women pregnant during their work in the rubber industry.The negative health effects of the rubber industry were first studied underpin in the 1950s (Uchida et al., 1993).The issues are still not being efficaciously dealt with. The Chinese government often underreports workplace-related accidents and illnesses. Companies attempt to use whatever loopholes getable to avoid nonrecreational workers compensation and one-time settlements are commonly pushed. The Chinese healthcare system is also inefficient and workers are caught in a complex web (Blanding and White, 2015).Work place accidents are common due to the mishandl ing of highly volatile and flammable components freqent explosions and associated health impacts and fatalities (Hamid et al., 2016 Chaiear, 2010).Total vision loss for some workers was reported in a massive rubber production zone. The most likely cause was black carbon exposure (Hamid et al., 2016).Increasing suicide rates in Chinas manufacturing industry linked to long work hours and repetitive nature of work (Smyth et al., 2013).One study for hours worked for migrant workers in China showed 40% worked 40-60 hours per week, 25% working 70 hours per week and 7% working more than 70 hours. The mean was 55.5 hours per week (Feng et al., 2002).Many migrant workers are also not part of the workers compensation system in China allowing companies to exploit them and not be held responsible at health for paying medical bills, lost wages, etc. (Blanding and White, 2015).Rationale for products not being handwoven in the UK Chinas factories are far cheaper than in other rich nations. M any workers get paid right at the minimum wage which is about one quarter of that in the US. Many companies are moving further inland in China for even cheaper wages in antecedently poor rural areas (Jiaxing and Yangon, 2015).Also, studies have found multinational companies offer high wages and a better standard of living than domestic subcontractors would offer. Therefore, many view the system as important for a better modus vivendi (Powell and Skarbek, 2004).Step 6 Transport of final product to portEnvironmental Impacts similar to Step 2 but the distances traveled are likely longer putting more stress on people are work many long hours away from homeStep 7 Shipment of product to the UKEnvironmental Impacts similar to step 4, assuming lode is coming through the Port of Felixstowe, the UKs largest port (World Shipping council, 2017)Step 8 Transport to UK seller facilityEnvironmental Impacts similar to step 2 and 6Step 9 Product useEnvironmental Impacts not very relevant when i n the use of the consumer other than considering that people necessary to drive to the store or have products delivered from online by truck the preliminary greenhouse gas emissions and air polluters are also included here(I chose not to include treatments and additional waterproofing coatings sometimes added, but they can contain chemicals potentially leading to air and water pollution.)Human Health and Societal ImpactsCompany market makes one think that the product is handmade by a UK company, but upon further examination it is obvious the product was made in China. After contacting the company, I know it is very difficult to know the origins of any of the natural resources or where the product is actually manufactured. Also, the marketing of Joules attempts to market to rural communities in terms or durability and go out show farms in adds, but also market to more stylish urban consumers with bright colors, patterns, and bows in designs.Joules has fewer products marketed on their site than many other brands and so want to appear as a unfailing brand. However, they still advertise new lines and products differ by year. This is still breeding a consumption culture of needing the new and different design rather than keeping the boots for an extended lifetime.Step 10 DisposalDescription of stepAlthough rubber boots could be reused and can have a potentially long lifetime with one consumer, we are skipping directly to disposal in a landfill.There are over 200 million waste tires in the US alone taken to landfills each year. Rubber only makes up less than 8% of total US landfill composition (Clark, 2013).There is also waste from all of the other production processes that is also likely transported to landfills or not disposed of the most environmentally conscious way. For example, the cardboard and paper packaging could be recycled, but for this case, I will assume the consumer fails to do so. Undesirable rubber sheets due to insect accumulation or product s made incorrectly likely go to landfills as well, piling up as workplace hazards in factories before disposal. However, this is the consumer usually does not consider.Environmental ImpactsWaterNatural rubber would be biodegradable before treating but additives and layers fool make this unlikely in landfills. Chemical additives can leach out of improperly sealed landfills water pollution (Clark, 2013)ClimateNatural rubber in landfills, if able to biodegrade will still contribute to methane creation within landfills.Human Health and Societal ImpactsCountries like the UK with very limited land area need to make tough decisions as a guild about how to ethically and efficiently deal with issues of waste. Therefore, in this way each consumer is affected.ReferencesAhrends, A., Hollingsworth, P. M., Ziegler, A. D., Fox, J. M., Chen, H., Su, Y., and Xu, J. (2015) Current trends of rubber plantation expansion may threaten biodiversity and livelihoods. spherical Environmental Change, 34, 48-58. inside10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.06.002.Akrill, P., Cocker, J. and Dixon, S. (2002) Occupational exposure in the rubber manufacturing industry. IARC, 134 265-269.Anjitha, G. (2013) Rubber and environment. Sri Lanka Insitute of Information, Technology. Academia.edu. from http//www.academia.edu/6391326/Rubber_and_environment 12.2.17Bhumiratana, A., Sorosjinda-Nunthawarasilp, P., Kaewwaen, W., Maneekan, P., and Pimnon, S. (2013) Malaria-associated rubber plantations in Thailand. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 11(1), 37-50. insidehttp//dx.doi.org.ezproxy1.allegheny.edu2048/10.1016/j.tmaid.2012.11.002.Blanding, M., and White, H. (2015) How China is screwing over its poisoned factory workers. Wired. https//www.wired.com/2015/04/inside-chinese-factories/slide-3 5.3.17.Chaiear, N. (2010) Update on health and resort in the rubber industries. GB Ismithers Rapra.Clark, T. (2013) Advancements in rubber disposal Biodegradation and the environment. ENSO Plastics, LLC. worldwide La tex Conference 2013. //www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140501222120-11496812-advancements-in-rubber-disposal-biodegradation-and-the-environment 27.2.17Edirisinghe, J. C. (2014) Taxing the pollution A case for reducing the environmental impacts of rubber production in Sri Lanka. ledger of South Asian Development, 9(1), 71-90. doi10.1177/0973174113520585.Forrest, M. (2015) The composition and nature of vulcanisation fumes in the rubber industry A technical review. Progress in Rubber, Plastics and cycle Technology, 31(4), 219-264.Gamaralalage, D., Sawai, O., and Nunoura, T. (2016) Effectiveness of available wastewater treatment facilities in rubber production industries in sri lanka.International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 7(12), 940-945. doihttp//dx.doi.org.ezproxy1.allegheny.edu2048/10.18178/ijesd.2016.7.12.908.Guney, I. (2013) How its made rubber boots. Discovery Channel. Youtube.com. https//www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuSWAMxdcHg 25.2.17.Hamid, A., Saeed, I., Akhtar, S., and Ahmad, S. R. (2016) Environmental profile of a rubber industry. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 15(3), 957-961.Helms, J. (2013) Worlds 15 biggest ships create more pollution than all the cars in the world. Industry Tap News. http//www.industrytap.com/worlds-15-biggest-ships-create-more-pollution-than-all-the-cars-in-the-world/8182 28.2.17.Ives, M. (2013) The rise of rubber takes chime on forests of southwest china. Yale Environment 360 (E360). http//e360.yale.edu/features/the_rise_of_rubber_takes_toll_on_forests_of_southwest_china 12.2.17.Jiaxing and Yangon. (2015) The future of factory Asia A change grip. The Economist. http//www.economist.com/news/briefing/21646180-rising-chinese-wages-will-only-strengthen-asias-hold-manufacturing-tightening-grip 26.2.17.Kaiyoorawong, S. and Yangdee, B. (2006) Rights of rubber farmers in Thailand under free trade. compute for Ecological Awareness Building. http//wrm.org.uy/oldsite/countries/Thailand/Rights_of_rubber_farmer s_in_Thailand.pdf 27.2.17Ke, L., and Shunzhang, Y. (2002) Mortality in a Chinese rubber factory A prospective cohort study. Journal of Occupational Health, 44(2), 76-82. doi10.1539/joh.44.76.Li, H., Aide, T. M., Ma, Y., Liu, W., Cao, M. (2007) Demand for rubber is causing the loss of high diversity rain forest in SW China. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16(6), 1731-1745. doi10.1007/s10531-006-9052-7.Liu, W., Hu, H., Ma, Y., Li, H. (2006). Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of increasing rubber plantations in Menglun Township, southwest China. Mountain Research and Development, 26(3), 245-248,250-253.Nicholson, J. (2011) Boot assembly operations. Youtube.com. https//www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0nDuWIp3K0 25.2.17.Peeples, L. (2016) The origin of rubber boots. Scientific American. The Sciences Online. https//www.scientificamerican.com/article/origin-rubber-boots-amazonian-indians-goodyear/ 25.2.17.Powell, B. and Skarbek, D. (2004) Sweatshops and third world living standards are the jobs worth the sweat? The Independent Institute. http//www.independent.org/publications/working_papers/article.asp?id=1369 5.3.17.Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA). (n.d.). Rubber faqs. RMA online. https//rma.org/about-rma/rubber-faqs/ 12.2.17.Smyth, R., Qian, X., Nielsen, I., and Kaempfer, I. (2013) Working hours in supply chain Chinese and Thai factories Evidence from the fair labor associations Soccer project. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(2), 382-408. doi10.1111/j.1467-8543.2011.00881.x.Sturgeon, J. C. (2013) Cross-border rubber cultivation between China and Laos Regionalization by Akha and Tai rubber farmers Cross-border rubber cultivation. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 34(1), 70-85. doi10.1111/sjtg.12014.Suwannakij, S. (2015) Too much rubber, too few tires leaves tappers in a mortifying place. Bloomberg Markets. https//www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-29/too-much-rubber-too-few-tires-leaves-tappers-in-a-sticky-place 26.2.17.Tangena, J. A. , Thammavong, P., Wilson, A. L., Brey, P. T., and Lindsay, S. W. (2016) Risk and control of mosquito-borne diseases in southeast Asian rubber plantations. Trends in Parasitology, 32(5), 402-415. doi10.1016/j.pt.2016.01.009.Uchida, Y., Nakatsuka, H., Ukai, H., Watanabe, T., Liu, Y. T., Huang, M. Y., and Ikeda, M. (1993) Symptoms and signs in workers exposed predominantly to xylenes. International biography of Occupational and Environmental Health, 64(8), 597-605.World Shipping Council. (2017) About the industry top 50 world container ports. World Shipping Council. http//www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports 28.2.17.Yujie, Z., Jusheng, J., Zongbo, P., Qunhui, W., and Daiqun, X. (2012) Ecosystem management in the natural rubber industry. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 3(3), 230-235. doi10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2012.03.005.

Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System

procedure of strain Class on Children in the trainingal System fond partitioning and how it affects tiddlerren senior(a) 7 days and at a baseborner institutionalize within the side trainingal systemThis report considers recent question evidence link to comprehensive education, and par of hazard, in relation to kind straighten out and how it affects tiddlerren erad 7 stratums and be utter within the English educational system. A definition of comprehensive education applicable to primordial educational practise will be offered. A literature freshen will be under distri exclusivelyen, that will princip exclusivelyy see to it the size of it of the kindly dissever differences amongst four-year-old baberen, and will go on to consider a case examine of comprehensive practice that was implemented at 1 English old train. Recommendations for future investigate argon made.IntroductionSince the progeny of the P littleden Report in 1967, it has bee n app atomic number 18nt that societal build has a pro rear offspring on the educational exercise of primeval(a) trail children. In the past dickens tenners, in that location mictu graze been a number of limited legislative changes that energize altered the shape of first discipline education. With the culture Reform Act(1988), tames start been call ford to undertake stockised trial runing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science equal to(p)s.Furtherto a greater extent, initiatehouses take a crap been consumed to let go of contr everywheresial conference tables of exertion, alongside home(a) aver borders, in their civilize course catalogue publications. There confine been several policies introduced to reduce the mental pictures of deprivation on juvenility children including certain(predicate) mark, and a planned widening of availability of greenhouse education all in the name of inclusive education (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield , Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New prod policy contractrs strive to make all families give c be nerve centre- figure families, or at least the ideal-typical midpoint house family of much(prenominal)(prenominal) educational query (p 7).However, at that place is surprisingly little empirical explore evidence fore glide slope on inclusive education, or e woodland of opportunity in former(a)(a) educational settings, with n azoic studies focalizationsing on heartbeatary winding drill children. This is too regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) fuddle cl primaeval shown that at the years of septette, prior accomplishment accounts for 26-43% of sectionalization in issue mensuratement results (p 389 407).Therefore, wee educational activity brave out of children with superfluous educational necessitate, or unnatural by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense grandeur to prevent childre n who start groom stool their peers from fall farther behind as their cultivate carg irs furtherance. This report will critically evaluate usable empirical studies cogitate to the education of children outperformrided 7 years and under within the United Kingdom. Further much, it will examine supposed and philosophical perspectives on previous(predicate) inclusive education, and make recommendations for further seek.method actingThe search dodge employed for the literature check out involved inquisitory electronic bibliographical databases for relevant look for and policy physical compositions related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and loving physical body materialisations with English naturalise educatees snipd 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most written document that were fixed and subsequently considered in this literature survey were promulgated in the 1990s and2000s. The elec tronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British discipline index number and Psych Lit.Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an private(a) basis to assess their relevance to the literature recapitulation. look into papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from heterogeneous library sources. However, it was matte that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey-headed literature. Therefore, the statement telegraph wire database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was besides searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government functionary statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way.Literature ReviewAlthough inclusive education has been the buzz articulate of the education sector for galore(postnominal) years, on that point is a lac k of pellucidness in its definition. It largely includes reference to a swears receptiveness to accommodate the penurys of all its pupils, and be more(prenominal) responsive to pupil diversity(Fiorina, depend on, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) down argued that comprehension and achieving high standards argon non of necessity mutually exclusive goals, with close to conditions achieving two (p 115).Stephen and negociate (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, draftsmanship distinction among the individual bewilder where the deprive pupil is seen as the task (p 274) to be moulded into the discipline system, towards a favorable fashion model of inclusive education. The fond model acknow guideges that in that respect whitethorn be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, hardly as well as consider the possible institutional and ope proportionalitynal ba rriers that resist childrens first appearance and integration into infant naturalizes. In their study, children from middle chassis homes were endureed by p arnts when they started infant shal lowboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and by dint of more proactive involvement in instill activities (p 273).Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners start in three English leas to assess what inclusive education development was possible in directs, and make spirit of work day responses to the inclusion body get alongnda. Some instructors reported confusion over what inclusive education was, since many official sources of information focussed on inclusion of children with special educational take only(p 1).However, most teachers saw inclusive education as prep for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a var. of inclusive education that is compatible with New repels friendly inclusion ag enda ensuring that all members of conjunction enter in the opportunities and activities of main(prenominal)stream society ( pallium, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was a set of grand values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a consignment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised kinds) in common education (p 2).In synthesising research papers on entranceible class related to early education, it is app arnt that the term affectionate class has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to identify and separate the effectuate of different combinations of disadvantaging operators, noning that whilst non additive there is evidence of cumulative disfavour (i.e. experiencing one factor much(prenominal) as low neighborly class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors) (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has class the different interpretations as including children from low income households, paternal unemployment, p arntal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate hovictimization environment (p 10).She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, unless only a fewer studies particularally examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as prognosticated by eligibility for bleak give instruction repasts, appears to have marked effect on educational strivement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that pass of income support benefit by the household accounted for 66% of pas seul in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10).Sparks (1999) has state that non- take aim factors be a more important source of adaptation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students set intimately (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools dismiss counteract some of the do of friendly deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of surrounded by 8% and 15%, and school effects are great within the old school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12).However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving glasshouse education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a confirming impact on achievement in national sound judgment tests at the age of septet (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, shortsighted families may non have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high . Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the reclusive sector readying where necessary.Smaller studies have shown an association between kindly class and early pupil attainment. However, heftyer evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated delineate form wizard results for local education authorities in England, against measurements of amicable class obtained from the 1991 affectionate Census. This study clearly showed that genial class, as bear witness through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local fostering permits recognize breaker point atomic number 53 test bell ringers, across all LEAs sampled (p 95).Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with murder at detect correspond iodin (p 280). More recentl y, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children lengthways at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools durability at maturation cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children.Detailed records were kept on every childs play down characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic billet and sex. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as pay offs occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in direct attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in version rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for righteous over 7% of variance in reading test performance, sequence having fa ther running(a)(a) in an semi or lowly work accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%.However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for conscionable 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was base on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980s, and prior to the onset of the matter Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published victimisation a British school population.With high statistical antecedent afforded through the sample size, it is possible pipework confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar excogitation but that are carried out now that the home(a) Curriculum is an found format of educational provision within primary school s. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the outdated paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility.In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The service line assessment is a structured serial of questions designed to assess pupils English ability, in terms of oral, reading and report ability. In addition, early mathematical perceptiveness is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. desert (1999) has studied the results of service line testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are found at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London.The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based around a range of b ackground factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are space of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment stack away by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlation coefficients between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key lay out 1 achievement, in the neighborhood of 0.6 or above.Furthermore, the test battery are highly prognostic of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for write. The combination of the LARR prey measure of literacy, and the teach er checklist, together make the best overall index number of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five complete points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20).In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational take place of1669 Wands worth school children who had terminate baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the virtuoso that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined fit the level of deprivation in the local community. The very(prenominal) assessment materials were used for thi s study as in Strand (1999). The figure of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479). abstruse measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and section of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. These integrative effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account (Strand, 1997, p 479).This meat that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their circumstance they may receive greater jock from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an zephyr more conducive to learning (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order.They suggest, The school constitutes, in microcosm, a varied and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex systemin order to ply successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an spirit of the connections between such important system-c at a timepts as rules, roles, agent and community (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age of 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was and then broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely functional(a) class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school.In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the inquiry-teacher in the power structure was unambiguous in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary year s. The researchers closely examined the responses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school.At the lower-middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend specimens where childrens knowledge and understanding change magnitude with years. However, for the functional-class school, the pattern of responses were more manifold. Children were much less presumable to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling included in school, with a strong sense of social status that children often report at the middle class school (p263). exam of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents.As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have sugg ested, Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to take issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and interrupt equipped to make their feelings known, it powerfulness be evaluate that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, by chance seen as less jeopardize (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in childrens understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school. tally to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increase cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the childrens responses may not be payable to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional fact ors may have an important contribution to childrens understanding of the school, with parents, teachers and childrens interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil.A social office perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265).Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful comminuted case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildrens educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (Broad mead) in an urban area, primarily serve families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in penning ability during Key Stage assessments.The school had place a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to live up to national expectations. discipline staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the manage of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to change writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, the schools response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the acknowledgement that customary practice simply did not work in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment (p 3).The school had travel towards a more experimental approach in the computer program, and included clean teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as mentation skills techniques. However, the actual cardinal purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from standard practice. Over the stratum of the project, the experience of implementing smart approaches and of their impact on childrens learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children.The sea captain aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own decently amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had thereof decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects.When the research squad interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was gen erally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was delinquent to the fact that children entered school with very limited lyric skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that catch up once they started school was scrimpy to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family colloquy about education at home. This lack of cookery for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the northern lad who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education.In summary, some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement unsanded teaching strategies as they had internalised the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment system, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them shortage (p 7).This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an resource perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of on-line(prenominal) educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities.Conclusionlate(a) Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain unblemished rhetoric unless there is eviden ce based research to provide teachers with interoperable skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. look studies have consistently shown that working class children are regarded as the problem that must be adapt to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom.However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers actualize that some children enter infant school gravely prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. carrying into action of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution.However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if inclusive education is real inclusive throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next blackguard is to develop longitudinal, alert research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice.Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. Sparks (1999) has shown that factors, such as social class, are associated with educational attainment, amongst young child ren. However, it is less clear about what aspects of social class are causal, and not merely correlated (p 10), and there is a need to investigate the specific aspects of social class that maybe associated/causing educational difficulties for children.ReferencesBarnes J, Balky J, Broomfield K, Sana D, Frost M, Melhuish E and the National valuation of the Sure Start Research Team (2005)Disadvantaged but different variation among deprived communities in relation to child and family well-being. diary of Child psychology and Psychiatry 46.9, pp. 952 962.Blanket D (1999) Excellence for the many, not just the few. CBI presidential Address 19 July 1999 (DFEE, London).Buchanan-Burrow E and Barratt M (1998) Individual Differences in Childrens Understanding of the schooling. Social Development 7.2, pp250-268.Elmer N and Hana J (1993) Studying social representations in children just old wine in new bottles? In G tell apart well and D Canter (ends)Empirical Approaches to Social Representat ives (Oxford University Press, Oxford).Fiorina L, Rouse M, Black-Hawkins K and Jull S (2004) What can national data sets tell us about inclusion and pupil achievement. British journal of Special Education 31.3, pp. 115 -121.Gallannaugh F and Dyson A (2003) initiates understanding of inclusion issues in inclusion and social class. (British educational Research Association Annual Conference, Edinburgh).Geertz S (2001) clone the Blairs. Journal of educational Policy 16.4, pp. 365-378.McCollum I (1993) Testing Seven division Olds performance and context. state Advice Note, pp. 93-101 (London Research Centre, London)Reynolds D, Sammons P, Stoll P, Barber M and Hillman J (1996) School effectiveness and school improvement in the United Kingdom. School forcefulness and School feeler 7, pp. 133 158.Sammons P (1995) Gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in attainment and progress a longitudinal analysis of student achievement over 9 years. British educational Research Journal 2 1.4, pp. 465-485.Sammons P and Sees R (1998) measuring stick pupil progress at key stage one using baseline assessment to investigate value added. School Leadership and vigilance 18.3, pp. 389 407.Sparks J (1999) Schools, Education and Social Exclusion. (Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, LSE, London).Stephen C and finagle P (2003) An comprehensive Perspective on Transition to Primary School. European educational Research Journal 2.2, pp. 262 -275.Strand S (1997) Pupil senesce during Key Stage 1 A Value Added Analysis of School Effects. British educational Research Journal 23.4,pp 471 487.Strand S (1999) Baseline assessment results at age 4 associations with pupil background factors. Journal of Research in Reading 22.1, pp. 14-26.The Plowden Report (1967) Children and their Primary Schools. (HMSO London)Thomas S (1995) Considering primary school effectiveness an analysis of 1992 Key Stage 1 results. The Curriculum Journal 6, pp. 279 295.West A, Pennell H, West A and Tr avers T (1999) The funding of school based education. (Centre for Educational Research, London).Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational SystemEffect of Social Class on Children in the Educational SystemSocial class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational systemThis report considers recent research evidence related to inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, in relation to social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system. A definition of inclusive education relevant to early educational practice will be offered. A literature review will be undertaken, that will principally examine the size of the social class differences amongst young children, and will go on to consider a case study of inclusive practice that was implemented at one English primary school. Recommendations for future research are made.IntroductionSince the publication of the Plowden Report in 1967, it has been apparent that social class has a expectant effect on the educational achievement of primary school children. In the past two decades, there have been a number of specific legislative changes that have altered the shape of primary school education. With the Education Reform Act(1988), schools have been required to undertake standardised testing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science subjects.Furthermore, schools have been required to publish controversial league tables of performance, alongside national averages, in their school prospectus publications. There have been several policies introduced to reduce the effects of deprivation on young children including Sure Start, and a planned widening of availability of nursery education all in the name of inclusive education (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield, Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New Labour policy makers strive to make all families like middle-class families, or at least th e ideal-typical middle class family of much educational research (p 7).However, there is surprisingly little empirical research evidence available on inclusive education, or equality of opportunity in early educational settings, with most studies focussing on secondary school children. This is also regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) have clearly shown that at the age of seven, prior attainment accounts for 26-43% of variance in national assessment results (p 389 407).Therefore, early teaching support of children with special educational needs, or affected by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense importance to prevent children who start school behind their peers from falling further behind as their school careers progress. This report will critically assess available empirical studies related to the education of children aged 7 years and below within the United Kingdom. Furthermore, it will examine theoretical and philosophical perspectives on early inclusive education, and make recommendations for further research.MethodThe search strategy employed for the literature review involved searching electronic bibliographical databases for relevant research and policy papers related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and social class issues with English school pupils aged 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most papers that were located and subsequently considered in this literature review were published in the 1990s and2000s. The electronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British Education Index and Psych Lit.Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an individual basis to assess their relevance to the literature review. Research papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from various library sources. However, it was felt that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey literature. Therefore, the Education Line database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was also searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government official statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way.Literature ReviewAlthough inclusive education has been the buzz word of the education sector for many years, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. It broadly includes reference to a schools receptivity to accommodate the needs of all its pupils, and be more responsive to pupil diversity(Fiorina, Rouse, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) have argued that inclusion and achieving high standards are not necessarily mutually exclusive goals, with some schools achieving both (p 115).Stephen and Cope (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, drawing distinction betw een the individual model where the deprived pupil is seen as the problem (p 274) to be moulded into the school system, towards a social model of inclusive education. The social model acknowledges that there may be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, but also consider the possible institutional and operational barriers that hinder childrens entry and integration into infant schools. In their study, children from middleclass homes were supported by parents when they started infant schoolboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and through more proactive involvement in school activities (p 273).Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners working in three English LEAs to assess what inclusive education development was possible in schools, and make sense of school responses to the inclusion agenda. Some teachers reported confusion over what inclusive education was, since many official sources of information focussed on incl usion of children with special educational needs only(p 1).However, most teachers saw inclusive education as provision for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a version of inclusive education that is compatible with New Labours social inclusion agenda ensuring that all members of society participate in the opportunities and activities of mainstream society (Blanket, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was a set of broad values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a commitment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised groups) in common education (p 2).In synthesising research papers on social class related to early education, it is apparent that the term social class has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to identify an d separate the effects of different combinations of disadvantaging factors, noting that whilst not additive there is evidence of cumulative disadvantage (i.e. experiencing one factor such as low social class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors) (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has classified the different interpretations as including children from low income households, parental unemployment, paternal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate housing environment (p 10).She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, but only a few studies specifically examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as indicated by eligibility for free school meals, appears to have marked effect on educational achievement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that receipt of income support benefit by the house hold accounted for 66% of variance in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10).Sparks (1999) has stated that non-school factors are a more important source of variation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students receive (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools can counteract some of the effects of social deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of between 8% and 15%, and school effects are greater within the primary school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12).However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving nursery education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a positive impact on achievement in national assessment tests at the age of sev en (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, poor families may not have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high. Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the private sector provision where necessary.Smaller studies have shown an association between social class and early pupil attainment. However, stronger evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated Key Stage One results for local education authorities in England, against measures of social class obtained from the 1991 Social Census. This study clearly showed that social class, as evidenced through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local Education Authoritys Key Stage One test scores, across all LEAs sampled (p 95).Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with performance at Key Stage One (p 280). More recently, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children longitudinally at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools effectiveness at developing cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children.Detailed records were kept on every childs background characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as fathers occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in absolute attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in reading rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for just over 7% of variance in reading test performance, while having father working in an semi or unskilled profession accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%.However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for just 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was based on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980s, and prior to the onset of the National Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published using a British school population.With high statistical power afforded through the sample size, it is possible tube confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar design but that are carried out now that the National Curriculum is an established format of educational pr ovision within primary schools. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the outdated paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility.In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for Baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The baseline assessment is a structured series of questions designed to assess pupils English ability, in terms of oral, reading and writing ability. In addition, early mathematical understanding is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. Strand (1999) has studied the results of baseline testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are based at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London.The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based aroun d a range of background factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are length of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment collected by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlations between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key Stage 1 achievement, in the region of 0.6 or above.Furthermore, the test battery are highly predictive of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for writing. The combination of the LARR objective measure of literacy, and the teacher ch ecklist, together make the best overall indicator of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five whole points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20).In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational progress of1669 Wands worth school children who had completed baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the sense that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined according the level of deprivation in the local community. The same assessment materials were used for this study as in Strand (1999). The pattern of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479).Composite measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and percentage of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. These compositional effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account (Strand, 1997, p 479).This means that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their context they may receive greater help from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an atmosphere more conducive to learning (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order.They suggest, The school constitutes, in microcosm, a multifaceted and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex systemin order to operate successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an understanding of the connections between such important system-concepts as rules, roles, power and community (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age o f 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was therefore broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely working class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school.In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the head-teacher in the power structure was evident in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary years. The researchers closely examined the r esponses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school.At the middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend patterns where childrens knowledge and understanding increased with years. However, for the working-class school, the pattern of responses were more complicated. Children were much less likely to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling included in school, with a strong sense of membership that children often report at the middle class school (p263). Examination of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents.As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have suggested, Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to tak e issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and better equipped to make their feelings known, it might be expected that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, maybe seen as less threatening (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in childrens understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school.According to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increased cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the childrens responses may not be due to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional factors may have an important contribution to childrens understanding of the school, wi th parents, teachers and childrens interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil.A social representation perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265).Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful detailed case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildrens educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (Broad mead) in an urban area, primarily serving families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in writing ability during Key Stage assessments.The school had identified a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to meet na tional expectations. School staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the cause of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to improve writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, the schools response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the realisation that customary practice simply did not work in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment (p 3).The school had moved towards a more experimental approach in the curriculum, and included new teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as thinking skills techniques. However, the actual underlying purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from sta ndard practice. Over the course of the project, the experience of implementing new approaches and of their impact on childrens learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children.The original aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own right amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had therefore decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects.When the research team interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was generally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was due to the fact that children entered school with very limited language skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that catch up once they started school was insufficient to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family communication about education at home. This lack of preparation for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the northern lad who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education.In summary, some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement new teaching strategies as they had internalised the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment syste m, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them deficit (p 7).This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an alternative perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of current educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities.ConclusionRecent Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain mere rhetoric unless there is evidence based research to provide teachers with practical skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. Research studies have consistent ly shown that working class children are regarded as the problem that must be adapted to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom.However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers recognise that some children enter infant school poorly prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. Implementation of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution.However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if inclusive education is truly inclusive throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next step is to develop longitudinal, vigorous research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice.Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. 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